2.8 Adverbs

Adverbs modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. They occur in elementary and compound forms:

Elementary: elementary word having the adverb ending

Compound: <prefix> + <root> + <root> + ending

where the ending is -e for all adverbs and where the components in parentheses are optional. Elementary adverbs consist of only one morpheme, i.e. unit of meaning, and cannot be separated into parts. Compound adverbs consist of two or more morphemes and can be separated into parts. The compound adverbs are all derived because there are no fundamental adverb roots.

Adverbs express a variety of features of a property or action including manner, degree, recurrence, place, time, agency, purpose, etc. Here are some examples illustrating the different functions of adverbs:

Dya kondwirits lente. She drove slowly.

Dya kondwirits mutce tcelera caro. She drove a very fast car.

Dya kondwirits mutce lente. She drove quite slowly.

2.8.1 Elementary Adverbs

Elementary adverbs include the interrogative adverbs, relative adverb, delayed-subject adverb, hypothetical situation-event adverb and exclamatory/consequential adverb.

Interrogative Adverbs

The interrogative adverbs are used either by themselves or as part of a sentence. Though some of the interrogative words appear to have roots which take different parts of speech endings, they are actually all elementary words which are indivisible and which take no other forms than those shown below. A more detailed discussion of their use follows in Chapter 3.2 Questions.

Table 2.8-1 Interrogative Adverbs

Hwe vyela estats tata arboro?	How old is that tree?
Hye dya kantits la ario?	How (in what manner) did she sing the aria?
Hworde dya kantats tata alta nwotoy?	How (by what method) does she sing those high notes?
Hwande ce hwerve la konserto okazuts?	When and where will the concert take place?

Relative Adverb

The relative adverb is kye (how/when/where/why/that). Note that the meaning of kye is clearly indicated by the meaning of the noun which precedes it. For example, when kye follows metodo it means ‘by which’; when it follows razono it means ‘why’, etc. It has many translations depending on the noun which it follows.

La metodo kye dya nadits estits The method by which he swam was

ekstraordinera. extraordinary.

Mark dicits alu myo la razono Mark told me the reason why they

kye dyay empregits myo. hired me.

La degreo kye dya kreskits The degree to which he grew

dumu una djaro surprizats myo. in one year surprises me.

La maniero kye dya tokits The manner in which she played

platcits cakyo. pleased everybody.

Dya departuts anu la djurno She will leave on the day

kye dya arivuts. when he arrives.

Myo sabats la lwoko kye dya studits. I know the place where she studied.

Sometimes kye may be translated as ‘that’ in English.

Hypothetical Situation-Event Adverb

The hypothetical situation-event adverb fye is used to indicate that a state or action is hypothetical instead of actually occurring. It must always directly follow the subject of the verb that it modifies. fye can be used with any Ayola verb tense or aspect.

The combination of fye and a verb is equivalent to the conditional mood in English and many other languages.

In Ayola sentences having two clauses connected by ci, cu, or ciyu, the adverb fye is used before the verb in both clauses. The verbs in the two clauses must always agree in tense. Note that such agreement between the two clauses is not the case in English.

Ci la biblioteko fye permitats la swonajo jwi muziko ene, myo fye awskultats dwa ofte.	If the library allowed the playing of music inside, I would listen to it often (in general).
Ci la biblioteko fye permitits la swonajo jwi muziko ene, myo fye awskultits dwa ofte.	If the library had allowed the playing of music inside, I would have listened to it often.
Ci la biblioteko fye permituts la swonajo jwi muziko ene, myo fye awskultuts dwa ofte.	If the library would allow the playing of music inside, I would listen to it often (in the future).

Note that the English translations of the second clause in the first and third sentences shown above are the same because English has no way of distinctly specifying the future tense in the conditional mood.

Here are more examples:

Ci le katso fye volats, le hundo fye timats.	If cats flew, dogs would be afraid (in general).
Ci la herjay vetero fye estits bona, moy fye ganits alu la pladjo.	If yesterday’s weather had been good, we would have gone to the beach.

In clauses connected by nici, fye is used only in the subordinate clause because the main clause is not hypothetical.

Nici dya fye andits alu la butiko, dya probable arivits alu la haymo atu seso.

Unless she went to the store, she probably arrived home at six.

In negative constructions, the word fye precedes the negative word no.

Ci dze fye estits pluse bona skulo, dyay fye no devits soinstruktare kiworde lergare.

If there had been a better school, they wouldn’t have had to teach themselves how to read.

Delayed-Subject Adverb

The delayed-subject adverb dze (there) occurs in sentences containing a prepositional phrase of place or time. dze stands for a subject whose occurrence is delayed for stylistic reasons. The subject is often, although not always, indefinite.

Dze estats libro onu la tablo.	There is a book on the table.
Onu la tablo dze estats libro.	On the table there is a book.
Dze estits konserto atu oco anu tinakto.	There was a concert at eight tonight.
Frentu la muzeo dze estuts la pluste bolca statuo jenu la urbo.	In front of the museum there will be the largest statue in the city.

The delayed-subject pronoun dza and the delayed-subject adverb dze may occur in the same sentence.

Dza estats importenta ke dze estuts vino enu la festo.	It is important that there be wine at the party.
Dze estits vezoy jenu myoza vivajo, kye dza estits facila lernare le nuva cozo.	There were times in my life when it was easy to learn new things.

Exclamatory/Consequential Adverb

The exclamatory/consequential adverb swe (so) is used to add emphasis to adjectives and adverbs.

Dwa estats swe frida efe!	It is so cold outside!
Dwa estats swe frida efe ake myo vwelats restare enu la hawso.	It’s so cold outside that I want to stay in the house.

2.8.2 Compounded Elementary Adverbs

The largest group of compounded elementary adverbs is the clausal/indefinite/universal/etc. adverbs, which are formed from the interrogative elementary adverbs hwe, hye, hwande, hwerve, hworde, and hworfe by joining a prefix or a quantifier or determiner root to the elementary adverb and dropping the h in a manner identical to that for the compounded elementary pronouns, as discussed in Section 2.2.2. The complete list is given in the table below:

Tables 2.8-2-4 Compounded Elementary Adverbs

Myo sabats kiye dya kantits ce kiwe la awdago amits dyaza kantajo.	I know how (in what manner) she sang and how (to what degree) the audience loved her singing.
Myo gesuprizats byu ke dwa estits tatwe frida.	I am surprised that it was that cold.
Samwande ce samwerve myo trovuts myoza geperdinta soko.	Sometime and somewhere I will find my lost sock.
Myo ganits memworfe coe dya ganits otrworfe.	I went for the same reason but she went for a different reason.

2.8.3 Adverbs Derived from other Parts of Speech

Compound adverbs are always derived from other parts of speech, namely, from adjectives, verbs, and quantifiers. They cannot be derived directly from nouns.

Adverbs Derived from Adjectives

Adverbs can be derived from all fundamental and derived adjectives. Here are some examples of adverbs derived from fundamental adjectives.

Table 2.8-5 Adverbs Derived from Fundamental Adjectives

When adverbs modify a verb, they are free to move about in the sentence. Position is governed mainly by considerations of emphasis and style.

Note that the English translation of the second sentence using the word ‘well’ alone is not permitted, probably because of the other use of ‘well’ as a pause word. In Ayola, both the initial and final as well as medial positions of the adverb are acceptable.

When adverbs modify an adjective or another adverb, they must occur directly before it and are bound to it.

Here are some examples of adverbs derived from derived adjectives, namely, preposition-noun compounds. Note that in most cases, the English translation of the adverb is a prepositional phrase and the translation of the adjective is formed from it. In contrast, in Ayola the process of derivation proceeds the other way, i.e. the adjective is the primary derived form.

When compound derived adverbs such as naklogjike and vekheliume are used only to modify an adjective, they must always occur directly before it and are bound to it.

Dwa estats naklogjike gederiva pruvimo.	It is a logically-derived proof.
La vekheliume gepleniza balono acendits aynu la blua tcielo.	The helium-filled balloon ascended into the blue sky.

Adverbs Derived from Verbs

Adverbs can be derived from verbs to indicate the manner in which an action is done.

amare	to love	ame	lovingly
vwelare	to want	vwele	willingly
hezitare	to hesitate	hezite	hesitatingly
insultare	to insult	insulte	insultingly

Adverbs Derived from Prepositions

Adverbs can be derived from prepositions to indicate the place, time, purpose, etc. of an action.

overu	over	overe	above
postu	after	poste	afterward
furu	for	fure	purposefully

Overe aviso volits lerte enu la nevnuba tcielo.	Above, a bird flew high in the cloudless sky.
Dya pracats fure.	She works purposefully.
Dyaza kopraco pracats nonfure.	Her coworker works purposelessly.

Adverbs Derived from Quantifiers

Adverbs can be derived from quantifiers to indicate the degree of an attribute or the multiplier of one degree relative to another in a comparison.

dusa	two	duse	twice as
dec-kwina	fifteen	dec-kwine	fifteen times as
multa	many	multe	many times as
poka	a bit of	poke	a bit
mutca	much	mutce	very
tuta	entire, total	tute	entirely, totally

­­

Myo estats duse vyela asu myoza dotro.	I am twice as old as my daughter.
Tisa lyako estats dec-kwine bolca asu tato.	This lake is fifteen times as large as that one.
Myo no estats poke stanka.	I am not a bit tired.
Dyay tute finwintats konstruktare myoza nuva hawso.	They have totally finished building my new house.

The table below indicates for the various parts of speech whether a particular type of adverb can be derived from it (+) or not (-). Note how none of the types of adverbs can be derived from nouns.

Table 2.8-5 Possibility of Deriving Adverbs from Parts of Speech

2.8.4 Emphatic Adverbs

Just as in English, in Ayola one can place emphasis or prominence on words or phrases by arranging their order in the sentence. However, another way of achieving word or phrase prominence is by utilizing selected adverbs in an emphatic role. In this role the adverbs are placed in front of the word or phrase intended to be emphasized.

Table 2.8-6 Emphatic Adverbs

nure	only
teze	also
evne	even

Teze myo estats hungra.	I also am hungry.
Dya estats teze dursta.	He is thirsty also.
Teze moy parlits enu Ayola enu la caro.	We also spoke Ayola in the car.
Moy teze parlits enu Ayola enu la caro.	We also spoke Ayola in the car.
Moy parlits enu Ayola teze enu la caro.	We spoke Ayola in the car also.
Nure anu le luntcajo myoza amikoy ce myo fondats aploy.	Only at lunch do my friends and I like apples.
Anu le luntcajo myoza amikoy ce myo fondats nure aploy.	At lunch my friends and I like only apples.
Anu myoza familio nure myoza granparentoy mandjits nefropidoy.	In my family only my grandparents eat lobsters.
Evne Djein fondats le karfyolo.	Even Jane likes cauliflower.
Djein evne fondats le karfyolo.	Jane even likes cauliflower.
Djein fondats evne le karfyolo.	Jane likes even cauliflower.

In the above examples the first five sentences use teze (also). Note that in English ‘also’ usually follows a noun or pronoun it emphasizes and precedes a verb it emphasizes. Therefore, when it occurs between a noun or pronoun and verb, which word ‘also’ emphasizes is unclear in English. This ambiguity is illustrated in the second and third sentences in the above list.

2.8.5 Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

Comparative Adverbs

The numerical comparative adverbs are the multiplier adverbs introduced in Chapter 2.6 Numbers. The three basic non-numerical comparative adverbs were introduced in Chapter 2.7 Adjectives. Five additional non-numerical comparative adverbs can be formed by prefixing pluse and mwene with the negative prefix non- or the approximation root nir-.

The commonly used comparative adverbs are listed in the table below.

Table 2.8-7 Comparative Adverbs

egle	as, to an equal degree
mwene	less, to a smaller degree
pluse	more, to a greater degree
nonmwene	to an equal or greater degree
nonpluse	to an equal or smaller degree
nire	approximately as
nirmwene	almost as
nirpluse	a bit more

Tisa arboro estats egle vyela asu la piramidoy.	This tree is as old as the pyramids.
Tata rivro estats nonmwene longa asu Rayn.	That river is at least as long as the Rhein.
La libro kyo myo legantats nune estats nirmwene longa asu layo kyo myo lergits anu la dernta somero.	The book which I am reading now is almost as long as the one which I read last summer.

Superlative Adverbs

The two basic superlative adverbs were discussed in Chapter 2.7 Adjectives. Two additional superlative adverbs may be formed by prefixing pluste and mwente with the negative prefix non-.

Table 2.8-8 Superlative Adverbs

mwente	least, to the smallest degree
pluste	most, to the greatest degree
nonmwente	not least
nonpluste	not most

2.8.6 Recurrence Adverbs

Recurrence adverbs, which specify the number of times an event recurs, are derived from complex recurrence adjectives (see section 2.7.5) by changing the part of speech ending to the adverb ending -e.

anu dusa vezoy on two occasions

 dusvezwa twice-occurring

 dusvezwe twice

anu dec-dusa vezoy on twelve occasions

 dec-dus-vezwa twelve- time- occurring

 dec-dus-vezwe on twelve occasions

Myo lergits la libro dusvezwe.	I read the book twice.
Tresvezwe anhodje dyo telefonirintats.	Three times today he has telephoned.

2.8.7 Noun Phrases Using Adverbially-Modified Adjectives

In addition to modifying verbs in the main clause, adverbs can modify adjectives within noun phrases. In this role they are bound to the following adjectives, and not free to move within the phrase. Here are some phrases, using the adverbs derived in the examples above:

ekstreme importenta evento extremely important event degree

balde deportunta tanto soon-to-depart aunt time

vonmatematike dificila libro mathematically difficult book manner

vekheliume gepleniza balono helium-filled balloon transferal

Exercises

Exercise 1

Julie likes to ask a lot of questions. Below are the answers to her questions. Write her questions using the interrogative adverbs Julie wants to use.

1. Dya kurits mutce rapide. (how, in what manner)

2. Moy havats deliciozoy cfuru mandjare. (what)

3. Djordj departuts atu deco. (when)

4. Kris mandjits dwa medu le hando. (how, by what method)

5. Myo vivats enu Yunayted Steyts. (where)

6. Dyay no ganats enu tidjurno kawske dwa pluvetcats. (why)

7. Vu kurits reytu oca mayloy dwi horo. (how, to what degree)

8. Dyaza matro donits alu dya katso. (what)

9. Myo no fondats le animalo kawske myo timats dya. (why)

10. Lusi arivits anu la dernta somero. (when)

Exercise 2

Julie wants to know a lot of things. Translate her questions. Start with “Ey vu sabats…” and then translate the rest of the question using the relative adverb kye. Lastly, determine which interrogative adverb you would use if starting a question with the underlined word.

Julie: Do you know….

1. the way how to go?

2. the time when she sang?

3. the school where I taught?

4. the date when I was born?

5. the reason why I can’t swim?

6. the method how to repair the car?

7. the town where I lived?

Exercise 3

Julie is having a very emotional day. Every emotion she feels compels her to act a certain way or do something out of the ordinary. Write sentences in Ayola by using the model. Use the exclamatory/consequential adverb swe and the consequential conjunction ake.

Ex. (felitca, kantare) Djuli estits swe felitca ake dya kantits.

(Julie was so happy that she sang.)

1. (trista, plorare)

2. (varma, kurare)

3. (gecrika, dansare)

4. (hungra, mandjare)

5. (skutca, nadare)

6. (ekcita, parlare)

7. (felitca, kaminare)

8. (trista, pensare)

9. (skutca, studare)

10. (gecrika, lergare)

Exercise 4

Translate the underlined words into Ayola adverbs.

1. She did well on her exam.

2. The boys quietly sang the song.

3. Slowly, they climbed the mountain.

4. The sun shined brightly through the clouds.

5. The student intelligently answered the question.

6. They performed badly after arriving late.

7. She completed the job tiredly.

8. Excitedly, the children said “yes.”

9. The boy ate the cake guiltily.

10. The dog went outside happily.

Exercise 5

Is the following statement true or false? Explain your answer.

All Ayola adverbs can be placed anywhere in a sentence.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 6

Translate the following words/phrases into Ayola and then convert them into adverbs where possible.

1. good

2. pretty

3. to love

4. on the desk

5. woman (as in the phrase ‘woman professor’)

6. flower (as in the phrase ‘flower garden’)

7. one

8. many

9. two

10. after

11. floor

Exercise 7

Translate the following noun phrases into Ayola. Use the information within the box to help you with translation. Some phrases contain adverbs, others do not.

1. the for-women written book

2. the by-woman written book

3. human-built canals

4. mountain-grown herbs

5. storm-tossed ocean

6. snow-covered land

7. before-concert dinner

8. nitrogen-fertilized lawn

9. trash-emptied waste basket

10. before-class discussion

11. at-home learning

Exercise 8

Translate the underlined adverbs in Ayola.

1. We’re a bit scared of the outcome.

2. I’m totally happy with the results.

3. We’re very glad you’re staying.

4. You’re twelve times as old as your grandchild.

5. They have eaten the cake entirely.

6. This school is three times as large as mine.

7. This lake is many times as deep as your swimming pool.

8. I have only been there twice as many times as you have..

Exercise 9

Rewrite the English sentences in Ayola and insert the emphatic adverb where appropriate. Place the emphasis on the underlined word.

1. I like pears (only)

2. Jacques came to the party. (even)

3. They travel to the mountains. (also)

4. My mother will not look at me. (even)

5. There are five apples left. (only)

6. The gym offers yoga classes. (also)

7. My employer wanted me to finish writing the report. (even)

8. She dislikes the cinema and television. (only)

9. The boy is wearing red pants. (also)

10. The adults cleaned up. (only)

Exercise 10

Translate the underlined words in each sentence into Ayola by using a comparative adverb + asu if necessary.

1. This movie is more interesting than that one.

2. My pie was as good as hers.

3. I want my steak to be cooked a bit longer.

4. My high school exam was at most as difficult as the kindergarten one.

5. You’re almost as patient as I.

6. He’s less tall than his father.

7. Your cat will live at least as long as a dog.

8. The car’s speed is approximately as high as the train’s.

9. You’ll find the red car slower than the blue one.

10. I enjoy eating more than cooking.

Exercise 11

Pakshmi loves to repeat her favorite activities. In Ayola, tell how many times she did the following activities.

Run to the mountains (5)  Dya kurits alu la montoy kwinvezwe.

Run to the mountains (12)  Dya kurits alu la montoy dec-dus-vezwe.

Exercise 12

Translate the following sentences into Ayola, noting that some sentences contain hypothetical situations/events, whereas others do not.

1. If I were you, I would go.

2. If you had left, I would have cried.

3. Only if you study will I buy you a cat.

4. If-and-only-if the weather is good, they will travel.

5. If you want to drive, I’ll pay for the gas.

6. Only if the children are quiet will he give them their toys.

7. The friends would be going to the party.

8. If-and-only-if she says yes, will I marry her.

9. I would have finished by now.

10. If it wasn’t raining, we would be leaving now.

11. The party will happen unless it rains.

12. In 2010 we would be eating in the Eiffel Tower.

Exercise 13

If the sentence contains a delayed-subject adverb(s), underline it/them.

1. There is my car.

2. There is a car in the parking lot.

3. We lived there for fifteen years.

4. At the intersection of George Street and Washington Street there is the best restaurant in the city.

5. We looked in the room but there was nothing there.

Exercise 14

Translate all the instances of ‘there’ in the following sentences into Ayola. Write the translation(s) in the blank line(s).

1. There are three adjectives in this sentence. ______________

2. What happened there? ____________

3. In December 2004 there occurred the largest tsunami in recent history. _________

4. There are no good restaurants there. _________ ______________

5. When did you go there? _________